INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Training
has long been a fundamental concern in organizational contexts. Organizations
rely on learning strategies, training technology and development efforts to
prepare their workforce (Salas et al., 2006). In today’s global economy, the knowledge,
skills and abilities necessary to maintain a competitive advantage are growing
and changing (Arguinis & Kraiger, 2009). As the nature of work changes,
employees are increasingly required to develop a wide, mutable set of skills
that are essential to the success of their organizations. Yet few workers
possess the cultural competence, interpersonal skills and technological
proficiency required for these changing work demands.
In
response to these issues, most organization including governments spend
billions of money on employee training and development every year (Paradise,
2007). Training can be defined as the systematic acquisition of knowledge,
skills and attitudes that together lead to improved performance in a specific
environment (Salas et al., 2006). This encompasses what employees need to know,
what they need to do and what they need to feel in order to successfully
perform their jobs. Training is focused on producing permanent cognitive and behavioural
changes, and on developing critical competencies for job performance.
Organizations make increasingly large investments in training because it serves
as a powerful tool for producing the targeted cognitive, behavioural and
affective learning outcomes essential for their survival (Salas & Stagl,
2009). Effective training can yield higher productivity, improved work quality,
increased motivation and commitment, higher morale and teamwork, and fewer
errors, culminating in a strong competitive advantage (Salas et al., 2006). On
the other hand, a poorly trained workforce can lead to errors, injuries and
even legal issues, all of which can be extremely costly.
Thus,
this paper is prepared to discuss analyze the discourse of training and
development in the point of view of Training Need Analysis (TNA). Other than
that, this paper will also evaluate the pre-training environment and the
pre-training attributes of the employees. At the end of this paper, two methods
of training and development will be proposed accordingly to improve the
training and development of employees in general.
2.0 TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS
In
determining the objectives of organizational training is to identify the
training needs of its employees. Training Needs Analysis (TNA) is conducted in
an organization to determine corporate and individual objectives and how
training programmes can help achieve these objectives.
A TNA is
the systematic investigation of training needs within an organization. It is
part of a process which integrates training with the business or development
plans of an organization. A TNA provides information on the training and skills
development requirements of all members in an organization. It is one of the
key steps in preparing a training plan and will provide managers with
information on which to base organization training plan.
TNA
enables managers to:
- Identify the gap between current and
required levels of knowledge, skills and aptitude
- Identify what the general content of
training should be
- Form the foundation of a training plan
- Provide a baseline for the evaluation
of a training plan
- Ensure that appropriate and relevant
training is delivered
- Maximize use of scarce resources
Other
than that, TNA also benefits the organization in many ways. It also identifies
performance goals and the knowledge, skills and abilities needed by a company’s
workforce to achieve those goals, identifies gaps in training provision in
sectors and or regions, helps direct resources to areas of greatest priority
and addresses resources needed to fulfil the organizational mission, improve
productivity, and provide quality products and services.
Training
must be relevant to member companies and meet their needs while simultaneously
enhancing the staff’s existing skills levels. By conducting an extensive TNA
for organization's network and delivering training to meet the requirements of
member companies, organization can experience a variety of benefits such as
improved profitability, lower staffing costs, production improvements and staff
development. The focus should be placed on the collective needs identified by
member companies that add value and impact to their competitiveness while also
developing the employability of the workforce.
Although
the benefits of TNA are obvious, a study found that only six per cent of
organization conduct proper TNA before designing a training programme (Arthur,
Bennet, Edens & Bell, 2003). Being time consuming and expensive are some
reasons why TNA is not conducted in an organization (Schultz & Sghultz,
2006).
In order
to achieve the objectives of TNA, another two important aspects in training
development is pre-training environment and also pre-training attributes of
employees that will be discuss in the next chapters.
3.0 PRE-TRAINING ENVIRONMENT
The
pre-training environment includes the decision or cues communicated directly or
indirectly to employees on an organization by managers and peers that indicate
the value of top management places on training programmes in organization
(Schultz & Schultz, 2010). The factors include the training opporturnities
provided by the organization, supervisors. attitude towards training
programmes, resource available for training and the workers' participation in
TNA. All the factors can influence the effectiveness of a training programme
because the tell the participants how supportive their company is when it comes
to training and development.
All
these factors can be assessed by employing multiple data-collection methods
(e.g., observation, surveys, interviews, and individual and organizational
performance) to determine where in the organization training is needed, which
individuals require training, and what knowledge or skills are required. When
this fundamental step is omitted, management may inadvertently believe training
is needed when the symptoms stem from a different problem. For example,
management may assume that poor guest service among front-desk employees is due
to a lack of appropriate interpersonal skills. However, careful investigation
may show that inappropriate staff scheduling, low employee morale, inadequate
compensation, or lack of resources is the real cause of the problem.
Once
training needs are identified, concrete learning objectives must be established
and appropriate training methods defined and implemented. The training methods
depend on the program’s objectives. Methods include on-the-job training and on-
or off-site classroom instruction through such means as lectures,
demonstrations, exercises, games, role plays, and simulations. Each of these
methods has its own advantages and is best employed under circumstances
dictated by the desired outcomes (Wexley & Latham, 1991). Moreover, the
trainer’s own personal characteristics and qualifications have a substantial
impact on the presentation, the trainees’ receptiveness, and the extent to
which the trainees learn from the experience.
Finally,
training efforts must be systematically evaluated to determine whether the
desired outcomes have been achieved. Donald Kirkpatrick, a pioneer in the field
of training evaluation, established four primary criteria for evaluating the
effectiveness of any formal or informal training program Kirkpatrick, 1967).
These criteria are:
- reactions to training (trainees’
affective responses to the training experience and their perceptions of
its value);
- knowledge acquisition (the extent to
which trainees know more after training than before);
- changes in job-related behavior and
performance that result from training; and
- improvements in organizational level
results, such as increased customer satisfaction and greater
profitability.
Kirkpalrick
(1967) argued that training reactions and learning are two criteria that may be
used for evaluating the effectiveness of any training program. It is fairly
well accepted that learning, which may be partially defined in terms of
knowledge acquisition, can occur only when individuals have both the ability
(“can do”) and the desire (“will do”) to acquire new knowledge (Noe, 1986;
Wexley and Latham, 1991). Although a number of studies have examined the “can
do” factors (for example, ability), few have considered the “will do” factors.
One of those that may influence learning as well as training reaction is
pretraining motivation.
Noe and
Schmitt (1986) conducted one of the first studies to explore the influence of
pre-training environment. These researchers found that a composite measure,
including three distinct though related dimensions of motivation (that is,
effort-performance expectancies, performance-outcome expectancies, and
motivation to learn), was significantly related to learning and that learning
had a significant influence on a measure of job performance. These results
demonstrate the importance of pre-training environment for training
effectiveness and have been replicated in subsequent research efforts (for
example, Baldwin and Magjuka1991; Mathieu, Tannenbaum, and Salas, 1992).
Thus,
the more training opportunities are present, the more likely the workers will
perceive and believe that training and development is an important and relevant
activity for them. Ideally if these conditions are met, the training programmes
is more likely to be effective (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). However, the
pscyhological characteristics of employees can also influence their desire to
learn (or not to learn). The characteristics will be examined in detail in the
following chapter.
4.0 PRE-TRAINING ATTRIBUTES OF EMPLOYEES
As
discussed in the previous chapter, employee’s psychological characteristics and
traits can influence their deisre to learn (or not to learn) in a training
programme. These psychological characteristics and traits can be categorize
into six section which includes:
Figure
1: Psychological characteristics and traits that impacts desire to
learn
In order
to identify individual differences, few test like cognitive ability test,
biographical data and performance in initial training experience such a work
sample exercise can be employ to determine the level of the differences.
What a
employees expects from a training programme can impact his or her training
experience. A study in a call center in Germany found that those whose
expectations were fulfilled by their training programme learned significantly
better than those whose expectations were not met (Rowold, 2007).
Other
than that, when a employee's training expectation is not met, he or she is less
likely to complete the training program. Overall, employees whose training
expectation is not met are also more likely to be dissatisfied with their job,
have a lower sense of work commitment and have high chances of quitting the
company (Schultz & Schultz, 2006).
Several
studies have found (and supported) that employee’s motivation to learn and
attend training has an effect on their skill acquisition, retention, and
willingness to apply the newly acquired skills on the job (Martocchio &
Webster 1992).
Pre-training
motivation to learn is defined as the trainees' desire to learn the content of
a training program before they attend a training program (Facteau, Dobbins,
Russell, Ladd & Kudisch, 1995). Since trainees’ pre-training motivation to
learn can determine the focus and the level of effort in a training program, it
is a focal factor that may enhance training effectiveness, especially learning
outcomes and transfer (Wiethoff, 2004). Training research found that
pre-training motivation to learn positively affects learning and transfer of
training (Colquitt, LePine, & Noe, 2000). If trainees are not highly
motivated to learn the content of diversity training, they may not actively
engage in the training program and cannot improve skills and knowledge
regarding diversity. Consequently, trainees who are not motivated to learn are
less likely to transfer their knowledge and skills learned from the diversity
training back to the job (Facteau et al., 1995).
Schultz
and Schultz (2010), found that the employees who is more involved in his or her
job shows higher motivation in learning that the employees who is less
involved. Subsequently, employees who are less involved with their jobs have a
lower potential in showing improvement in their job performance as a result of
their training.
Other
than that, Noe (1986) proposed that the involvement of employees in an open
problem, experimentation and exposure during training all influence their
motivation. It also plays a critical role in achieving training success.
Locus of
control is the belief that things or situations can or cannot be controlled by
themselves. This variable affects the employee’s motivation in learning. For
example, employees who have a high internal locus of control believe job
rewards such as pay and promotion are under their personal control whereas
workers who have a high external locus of control believe life events are
beyond their control. They are more likely to depend on luck, chance or whether
their boss likes them or not (Schultz & Schultz, 2010)
Employees
who have a high internal locus of control are likely to be highly motivated to
succeed in a training programme as they believe that the ability to master
certain skills or knowledge is within their control. In comparison, employees
who have a high external locus of control are less likely to be motivated to success
in a training programme.
Self-efficacy,
which has also been linked to the employee’s attributes, can be defined as a
judgment an individual makes about his or her ability to perform a given task
(Bandura, 1982). The higher the employee's self-efficacy, the more confidence
they will have in their ability to successfully acquire targeted skills and
perform trained tasks. In challenging situations, individuals with low
self-efficacy are more likely to lessen or discontinue their effort, whereas
those with high self-efficacy are more likely to exert additional effort in
order to meet the challenge (Robbins & Judge, 2009).
Employees
higher in self-efficacy have more confidence in their ability to learn and
apply trained competencies, and are more likely to persist when performing
difficult tasks Blume et al. (2010).
5.0 RECOMMENDATION METHODS FOR TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
In the
contemporary training development sector, there is a huge collection of
training programmes. Depending on the objectives of the training programmes,
the abilities of the employees and the nature of the information to be learned,
different training programmes utilize different techniques.
Hence, in
this chapter two recommendation for methods of training and development will be
discussed with the appropriate justification.
Interactive
employee training techniques keep employees engaged, which makes them more
receptive to new information. These techniques incorporate group discussions,
which is one of the best ways for more knowledgeable employees to pass their
skills onto new employees. In other words, discussions provide open
communication among the trainees and with the trainer.
Brainstorming
is incorporated and any confusion is addressed. Interactive training also uses
demonstrations. Demonstrations are powerful training tools as they involve use
of tools and equipment to showcase the steps being taught or the main processes
being adopted. Other techniques under this category include use of case
studies, active summaries, quizzes, Q&A sessions, question cards,
participant control, and role playing. These training techniques make training
fun and more enjoyable as employees interact freely while still absorbing
essential skills necessary for better performance.
What
more interestingly about interactive employee training techniques is also it
allows employees getting involved in real life situation such error management.
Error management is a related training strategy that has also proven to
effectively in training development (Burke & Hutchins, 2007). It allows
employees to make errors and providing error management instructions have
emerged as effective ways to facilitate the proper use of targeted knowledge
and skills in the workplace. Heimbeck et al. (2003), for example, found that
training development was greater for employees who were provided with error
training and error management instructions as compared to trainees who received
error training alone or those who were prevented from making errors during the
training process. Error-based training allows trainees to anticipate what can
go wrong, and equips them with the knowledge of how to handle potential
problems. Furthermore, such training can enhance the perceived utility of
training by exemplifying negative outcomes that can occur without the
acquisition of trained skills (Burke & Hutchins, 2007).
With the
numerous technological advances, many companies mostly rely on online resources
to deliver training. According to many studies, the number of companies using
e-learning training is increasing and it is predicted that it will continue to
rise with time.
This
method of training is becoming more prevalent due to the fact that the internet
is becoming increasingly accessible. One example of this type of training is
WalkMe, the guidance and engagement platform that provides immediate and direct
training for employees in the moment of need.
Additionally,
it is important to keep the employees involved and engaged in order to encourage
that they retain new information. For better results, experts recommend using some
softer training methods that are not necessarily needed to convey any
information, but are effective in making receiving data or instructions an
enjoyable experience. They include use of humor, use of attractive learning
materials (professional packaging sets a good first impression), encouraging
participation, and building self-esteem. These methods help create a win-win
environment by building the participants confidence and making the training
more interesting.
The
adoption of this technique will mirror the environment in which trained
competencies will be applied as closely as possible. Organizations should go as
far as conducting on-the-job training, which is include the application of
technology and internet which takes place in the actual physical and social
environment where the tasks being trained will be performed (Salas et al.,
2006). Trained skills are more likely to transfer to the job following training
in this case because they were learned and practiced in the work environment.
Training settings that closely resemble multiple aspects of the workplace,
however, can also be effective. Kraiger (2003), for example, summarized
training techniques that have been shown to enhance transfer. These include the
use of identical elements, stimulus variability and varying conditions of
practice. Such strategies allow employees to gain experience with multiple conditions
that can occur on the job. Similarly, practice scenarios should encompass
characteristics of the actual work environment (Salas et al., 2006).
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
In this
competitive world, where nothing is static, every day an innovation comes into
the market. This made the organization to be progressive in their business
process and keep on implementing the changes so that they will be competitive
in the market. Thus, organizations generally provide training to their
employees for better utilization of their skills. Also, they know the
importance of training and development impact on the organization.
Hence,
in providing the right training to employees TNA plays the most important steps
to achieve the objective as discussed in chapter two of this paper. TNA
conducting a proper diagnosis of what needs to be trained, for whom, and within
what type of organizational system. The outcomes of this step are (a) expected
learning outcomes, (b) guidance for training design and delivery, (c) ideas for
training evaluation, and (d) information about the organizational factors that
will likely facilitate or hinder training effectiveness. It is, however,
important to recognize that training is not always the ideal solution to
address performance deficiencies, and a well conducted TNA can also help
determine whether a non-training solution is a better alternative.
Recommendations
for methods of training and development as discussed in chapter five is a few
examples from many techniques developed in training development. The
recommendation is based on the contemporary needs in globalization era in
business organization. However, the techniques may prove time consuming or
expensive. But, Despite the potential drawbacks, training and development
provides both the company as a whole and the individual employees with benefits
that make the cost and time a worthwhile investment.
(3256 WORDS)
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